In its broadest meaning, this term refers to physical discipline, most often the abandonment of normal society and conventional social life in the pursuit of divine enlightenment and ultimate spiritual freedom (moksha).
Throughout history, ascetic practice has emphasized many recurring themes.
Celibacy has been one of the most popular for a number of reasons.
- Not only does sexual pleasure utilize the senses to entrap a person, but home and family ties are also regarded as a hindrance to serious spiritual pursuits.
- The notion that semen is a man's concentrated essence, and therefore something to be carefully guarded, motivates the focus on celibacy.
- Although semen must be spent in order to reproduce, it should not be spilt carelessly since it depletes a man's vitality.
- Celibacy is said to provide more vitality, which leads to higher spiritual achievement.
The practice of tapas, or physical austerity, has long been a defining feature, with the belief that enduring physical suffering not only develops character but also produces spiritual force.
- Tapas may take on horrific self-mutilation and mortification forms at times.
- Other times, a gentler physical discipline, such as a type of hatha yoga, may be used to prepare the body and mind for long periods of practice.
In general, ascetics' spiritual growth may take a number of routes, which frequently reflect the talents and preferences of the ascetics who pursue them.
- Some ways have emphasized conventional study, some have emphasized worship and devotion, others have emphasized physical austerity, while yet others have emphasized meditation and personal revelation.
- Almost often, spiritual instruction takes place under the supervision of a religious preceptor (guru), who is responsible for his students' spiritual growth.
- Although there is some debate over how long and how venerable asceticism has been practiced in India, it has a long and venerable history.
- The most bold assertion is that the Indian ascetic tradition stems from the Indus Valley civilization's religion.
- This assertion is based on an old artifact known as an Indus Valley seal, which depicts a person sitting cross-legged as though in meditation.
- Whether one believes this assertion or not, the Vedas, the oldest Hindu texts, provide plenty of evidence of asceticism.
The Vedas describe renunciants like the vratya, yati, and muni, as well as ascetics who live in the woods.
- Indeed, the Aranyakas or "Forest Books," as one layer of the Veda is known, indicates that it was written by such ascetics.
- Buddhist and Jain literature, as well as certain later upanishads, clearly indicate that monastic living was firmly established by the fifth century B.C.E.
- All of these ascetics, whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain, were lumped together under the name shramana, which means “to strive” in Sanskrit.
The theological conflict between the two main religious paradigms, the Brahmana ideal linked with Vedic religion and the shramana ideal associated with austerity, is well acknowledged.
- The Brahmana ideal was based on sacrifice, mastery of complex sacred texts, and hereditary priesthood; it was also so expensive that it almost required royal patronage—all of these factors made it the "establishment religion." These concepts clashed with the shramana ideal, which was renunciant, individualist, and focused on inner experience.
- This conflict had been partly resolved by the time of the Dharma Shastras (treatises on religious duty); asceticism had been consigned to the last of the four ashramas (stages of life), that of the Sanyasi.
- Even yet, there is still tension since, according to these scriptures, a twice-born man cannot become a Sanyasi until he has met his children's children, which would put him in his late thirties.
- These scriptures limit asceticism to twice-born males who have completed their householder duties, but they exclude women and low-caste men.
- Needless to say, the real world has never resembled the utopian society depicted in the Dharma Shastras.
Initiated Hindu ascetics may be classified into many main categories based on their organizational structure.
- One distinction is based on the patron god of ascetics; the Shaiva are Shiva worshippers (bhakta), while the Vaishnava worship Vishnu.
- The Kapalikas, Kalamukhas, and Pashupatas are Shaiva ascetic groups that have vanished; the Dashanamis and Nathpanthis are the only two Shaiva groups that remain.
- The Dashanamis are the most renowned ascetics in the world.
- They are said to have been founded by the renowned philosopher Shankaracharya and have a long history of emphasizing study.
- Gorakhnath, a miracle-working yogi about whom little is known, is the ancestor of the Nathpanthis.
- The Nathpanthis are renowned for emphasizing the physical body's change via yoga.
- Vaishnava ascetics are more recently organized, and in northern India, they are divided into four groups (chatuhsampradayi Nagas), each named after the founder of the group:
- Ramananda for the Ramanandis,
- Nimbarka for the Nimbarkis,
- Chaitanya for the Madhva Gaudiyas (Brahma Sampraday), and
- Vishnuswami for the Vishnuswamis.
- Both the Dashanamis and the Vaishnava ascetics have formed bands of warriors known as Nagas ("naked") from at least the sixteenth century, and perhaps much earlier.
- These soldier-ascetics were tasked with guarding the other ascetics, as well as acting as long-distance merchants and mercenary warriors.
- Although these Naga orders still exist today, they are no longer battle-ready.
- The Udasis, who worship the panchayatana ("five-fold"), a grouping of five Hindu deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Ganesh, and Surya, are another prominent sect.
- In terms of religion, the Udasis are in between the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas.
- Reform-minded ascetics have formed their own ascetic bands throughout the ages, a process that continues now.
G. S. Ghurye, Indian Sadhus, 1964; Jadunath Sarkar, A History of the Dasanami Naga Sanyasis, 1958; Padmanabh S. Jaini, “Sramanas: Their Conflict with Brahmanical Society,” in Joseph Elder (ed. ), Chapters in Indian Civilization, 1970; Robert Lewis Gross, The Sadhus of India, 1992; and Peter van der Veer, Gods on Earth, 1988 for more information Also known as panchayatana puja.
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